By Jon Fjeldså, Jens Otto Svendsen and Louis A. Hansen.
The Uluguru Mountains, which are
located in the central part of the Eastern Arc Mountains in Tanzania (see
Figure 1.1), have long been recognized as a key site for conservation of
biodiversity in Africa, and some actions for protecting the mountain forests
have already been initiated. However, large portions of the Uluguru South and
North Forest Reserves (see Figure 1.3), especially in the Uluguru South, have
remained unexplored biologically prior to this survey. It was therefore unknown
where conservation actions were most urgently needed, and where this would be
most effective.
1.1. Aims of The Uluguru Biodiversity Survey 1993.
The work presented in this report is based on
fieldwork and a study of the literature.
·
The aim of the field
survey (fieldwork period of
2.5 month, lasting from 1 October to 17 December 1993) was to collect
information on biodiversity in the Ulugurus, mainly the Uluguru
South and North F.R.s., and with the main emphasis placed on birds. Data were
collected also on botany, ethnobotany, mammals and millipedes. The data were
collected for:
A. The Uluguru Slopes Planning Project (a conservation
planning programme funded by the European Community through the Royal Society
for the Protection of Birds, England), in order to improve the knowledge for
further conservation and management decisions (contract on bird survey).
B. A research project (Eastern Arc Biodiversity
Project, University of Copenhagen), which aims at understanding biogeographical
patterns and pointing out conservation priorities in the Eastern Arc.
The main part of the fieldwork took place on the eastern
slopes of the Uluguru
South F.R.
(Figure 1.3) to fill in a large gap in ornithological knowledge for this part
of the mountains. Two
of the main study sites were located here. Comparative
fieldwork was carried
out on the third
main locality which was in the Uluguru North F.R. To
improve the overview brief ornithological
surveys were
also carried out on other spots
of the mountain forests and to one lowland forest.
·
The aim of the literature
study is to supplement the field data from this survey with an up-dated assessment
of the biodiversity conservation value of these forests. Other values and the
problems the forests face, including observations from the fieldwork period on
land uses, are also listed to put the biological value into a wider
perspective.
·
A further aim was training
Danish students and ornithologists and Tanzanian foresters in fieldwork
techniques.
1.2. Introductory notes on the
Uluguru forests: Geography, biogeographical affinity and forest
cover of the mountains.
Eastern
Arc forests. Eastern Arc forests (see Figure 1.1) are marked by
the large number of restricted-range species and genera (e.g. Collar and Stuart
1988, Lovett 1988, Lovett and Wasser 1993), many of which are currently known
from just one or a few sites. Thus the Eastern Arc is of very high conservation
importance. For birds, which are the best known group of living organisms, no
less than 12 of the World’s 1,111 Threatened species (as listed by Collar et
al. 1994, corresponding 11 % of the World's c. 9,800 bird species) are endemic[1] to the Eastern Arc forests.
25-30 % of the c. 2,000 Eastern Arc plant species are endemic (Lovett 1988).
Large areas of the Eastern Arc
forests have been cleared in the past for agriculture, and these forests are very
threatened from a rapidly growing human population demanding ever more land for
agriculture. The
pressure from commercial logging interest has been high but has
now eased. Most
of the Eastern Arc forests are administered as Catchment Forest
Reserves under the
Forest Division of the Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and Environment
(Lovett and Pócs 1993).
The Uluguru Mountains. The Uluguru Mountains form an
outlying ridge east of the main range of Eastern Arc forests, 180 km from the
Indian Ocean. The ridge is 45.5 km long, rising out of the coastal plain at 300
m and peaking at 2635 m (Figure 1.2). It consists of two
mountain blocks which are separated by the Bunduki Gap (Figures
1.2 and 1.3). There are also some outlying hills (Figure 1.3). The following
general characterisations can be made about the forest cover:
·
Large areas of forest and
dense woodland, especially in the submontane zone, have been cleared to give way to subsistence agriculture (Temple 1973, Lyamuya et al. 1994).
·
The high parts of the Uluguru Mountains are still
forested
(Figure 1.2). By far the largest and
most important reserves are the Uluguru South (164.3 km²) and North (83.6 km²)
F.R.s (Figure 1.3). The position of the
lower forest edge in these reserves varies
greatly, from 1000 to 2000 m elevation, with a few narrow strips down to
650 m (Figure 1.2). In all areas
local fields extend right up to the lower forest edge.
·
In most parts of the Uluguru South F.R. the lower forest
edge is above 1500 m (Figure 1.2).
·
In the
Uluguru North F.R. considerable areas of submontane
forest (forest between 500 and 1500 m) still remain
in certain parts, mainly on the
eastern/north-eastern slopes of the Uluguru North F.R. where the forest
ranges down to 1000-1200 m in certain places (Figure 1.2). This forest type, which is characterized by tall, thick trees with many
ephiphytes, is one of the most spectacular in Eastern Africa.
·
Above the principal agricultural areas on the drier west slope of
the Uluguru South F.R., the
lower forest edge is at 1900-2000 m (Figure 1.2), and virtually all
large trees have been extracted.
·
Apart from the forests above 1000 m on the slopes there are patches of lowland
forests in the limestone karst terrain in the eastern foothills at c. 300-500
m, of which the most important are the Kimboza/Ruvu F.R.s (4 km²/31 km²)
(Figures 1.2 and 1.3).
·
There
is also forest on some of the outlying hills. Mkungwe F.R. (at present 19.67 km², to be extended) contains wet submontane
forest, the other hills hold forest of a drier type.
The Uluguru forests are among the
most critically threatened in the Eastern Arc. Some of the problems are:
·
A
very serious depletion of firewood and building pole resources outside the forests
forces people to obtain these items illegally inside the forest.
·
A
poor and rapidly growing human population (2.8 % growth per annum and up to 6.5
% per annum in some places) with poor agricultural techniques (soils get
depleted for nutrients) demands more land every year for farming. This leads to
a risk of crossing the often badly demarcated forest reserve boundaries, which
are seldom patrolled. See photos in photograph section.
·
Widespread
burning is a serious threat to the woodlands and forest edges. See photos.
·
Outside
the forests soil erosion is a big problem. Farming often takes place on very
steep slopes (up to and beyond 50°) and on most of them no measures
are taken to prevent erosion. See photos.
1.3. Principal
values of the
Uluguru forests (the results of the literature study).
Water
catchment and prevention of soil erosion and siltation of
rivers. The eastern slopes of the Uluguru, Udzungwa and
Usambara mountains have the highest rainfall in eastern Africa. The mountain forests of the Uluguru mountains are
extremely important for water catchment (e.g. Temple 1973, Lovett and Pócs 1993,
Lyamuya et al. 1994). They
are of vital
importance for the people living on the slopes of the Ulugurus, because they:
·
secure a stable and good
water supply.
·
maintain a humid climate
suitable for agriculture.
·
have a high value for
prevention of soil erosion and
siltation of rivers and streams in the agricultural areas further down the
slopes. This is because they keep much of the water that falls during heavy
rains. Dense woodlands on the slopes also help to prevent erosion and siltation
but have largely been cleared.
The forests are also the main catchment for
three rivers of high importance for people outside the Ulugurus:
·
Ruvu River, which is the
main water source for the urban and industrial users in Tanzania’s most
populous city: Dar es Salaam (c. 2 million citizens) (Temple 1973, K. Muriria in litt. 1995). Ruvu collects water
mainly from the eastern parts and is joined further east by the Mgeta and
Ngerengere Rivers which collect water in the southwestern and northwestern
parts (Figure 1.3).
·
Morogoro
and Ngerengere Rivers (Figure 1.3), which are the major water source for the populous
regional, headquarter Morogoro (Temple 1973, Lovett and Pócs 1993, K. Murira in litt. 1995). Ngerengere River is
furthermore the major water source for many sisal estates in Morogoro District
according to Temple (1973).
The value of the catchment function of the
forests of the Uluguru Mountains has not been estimated in monetary terms. However,
as most of the economic activity of Dar es Salaam depends on the water from
this forest, the value must be billions of Dollars over a 10-year period. This is
all jeopardised by the loss of the cover of forest, woodland and other trees
from the mountains.
Biodiversity
in general. All forests in the
Eastern Arc are characterized by a high species richness and a high number of
endemic species. However, some mountains are more remarkable in this respect
than others, and the Uluguru, Udzungwa and Usambara Mountains (Figure 1.1) stand out in particular (e.g. Scharff et al. 1982,
Collar and Stuart 1988, Lovett 1988, Lovett and Wasser 1993, our Table
5.1). The
Uluguru forests have many animal and plant species found
nowhere else in the world, true endemics.
Most biological fieldwork in the Ulugurus has
taken place in the mountain forests, principally the Uluguru North and South
F.R.s, with a good part also in the lowland Kimboza Forest and a little in the
lowland Ruvu Forest. The outlying hills are probably unknown biologically
except for vegetation descriptions in e.g. Lovett and Pócs (1993), Mkungwe F.R.
containing wet submontane forest but the others being of a drier type.
Bird species of special
conservation value. The importance of the
Uluguru Mountains for forest birds has long been known. In a review of key forests
for the protection of threatened bird species in Africa by Collar and Stuart
(1988), the Uluguru Mountains (including foothills) ranked 16th among all
forests on the African continent and fourth among all forests in East Africa in
terms of conservation value for the protection of Threatened and
Near-threatened bird species. The Ulugurus are furthermore an important part of
C24, one of the 221 priority areas for global conservation listed by ICBP
(1992) (ICBP, International Council for Bird Preservation, has now changed its
name to BirdLife International). The Ulugurus are compared with the other
Tanganyika-Nyasa Montane Forests in Table 5.1.
Five Threatened and three Near-threatened species occur in the Ulugurus
(global conservation status categories with capitals from Collar et al. 1994):
·
Two of these species are endemic to the
Ulugurus: the Uluguru Bush Shrike Malaconotus
alius (Threatened) which is a distinct species occurring at very low
densities, and Loveridge's Sunbird Nectarinia
loveridgei (Near-threatened, see photo in photograph section) which is a
valid species in the Nectarinia regia
superspecies (Hall and Moreau 1970), and very common.
·
The other Threatened and Near-threatened bird
species known from the Ulugurus are: Mrs Moreau's Warbler Scepomycter winifredae (Threatened; Eastern Arc endemic; the
Uluguru population is probably the largest of the four known; see photo in
photograph section), White-winged Apalis Apalis
chariessa (Threatened; the Uluguru population may be the second largest
single population), Banded Green Sunbird Anthreptes
rubritorques (Threatened; Eastern Arc endemic), Tanzanian Mountain Weaver Ploceus nicolli (Threatened; Eastern Arc
endemic; a very rare species only known from three mountain ranges, occurring
at low densities in all of them), Southern Banded Snake Eagle Circaetus fasciolatus (Near-threatened)
and Uluguru Violet-backed Sunbird Anthreptes
neglectus (Near-threatened).
A further six forest restricted-range species (breeding range less than 50,000
km² and therefore also of special conservation interest) occur in the mountain
forests. They are: White-chested Alethe Alethe fuelleborni, Sharpe´s
Akalat Sheppardia sharpei, Chestnut-headed Apalis Apalis chapini,
Red-capped Forest Warbler (African Tailorbird) Orthotomus metopias,
Spot-throat Modulatrix stictigula and Kendrick’s Starling Poeoptera
kenricki.
The geographical distribution in the Ulugurus of
bird species of special conservation importance is described in Section 1.6.
Mammals of
special conservation value. Two shrew
species
are endemic to the Uluguru forests: Crocidura
telfordi and Myosorex geata.
The subspecies
tropichalis of the insectivore Golden
Mole Chrysochloris stuhlmanni is also endemic.
Three mammal species are on the 1994 IUCN Red List of
Threatened Animals (IUCN 1994): Zanzibar Galago Galago zanzibaricus, Black and Rufous Elephant Shrew Rhynchocyon petersi and Abbott’s Duiker Cephalophus spadix, the last one being
endemic to the Eastern Arc forests.
Reptiles of special conservation value[2]. Of the 22 forest species known to occur in the Ulugurus, six
species are endemic: Lygodactylus
williamsi (a lizard known only from Kimboza Forest), Cnemaspis barbouri (a lizard), Scelotes
uluguruensis (a skink), Typhlops
uluguruensis (a snake), Prosymna
ornatissima (a snake) and Geodipsas
procterae (a snake), with a further 10 of the species being Eastern Arc
endemics.
Amphibians of
special conservation value. Of the 26 forest species known to occur in the
Ulugurus, five are endemic: Nectophrynoides
cryptus (a toad), Probreviceps
uluguruensis (a microphylid frog), Holophryne
uluguruensis (a microphylid frog), Afrocaecilia
uluguruensis (a caecilian) and Scolecomorphus
uluguruensis (a caecilian),
with a further 10 of the species being Eastern Arc endemics. See footnote under
reptiles.
Invertebrates of
special conservation value. Endemism is high in invertebrates in groups that are relatively well studied
in East Africa:
Millipedes: Of 28 taxa known from the forests, 23 (86 %) are endemic,
27 are true forest taxa.
Linyphiid dwarf spiders: 14 (86 %) of 17 species are endemic (all 14 are true
forest species). Butterflies: 10 (27 %) of 37 species are endemic. Endemism in
less well known groups, current knowledge: Harvestmen: 15 (88 %) of 17 species,
montane ground beetles: 41 (95 %) of 43 species, pselaphids: 43 (100 %) of 43
species, montane forest earwigs: 10 (91 %) of 11 species.
Plants
of special conservation value. The flora of the forests in the Ulugurus is rich in
terms of number of endemics and number of species. It is as rich as the other
high rainfall Eastern Arc mountains and much higher than equivalent areas of
forest outside the Eastern Arc from the Horn of Africa to the Cape. Plant taxa are found only in the Ulugurus in a wide range of life forms
from hemi-parasites, epiphytes and ground herbs, to shrubs and trees over the
entire elevational range of the mountains where forest has not been heavily disturbed.
It has not been possible to investigate all plant groups for the purpose of
this report. Below we mention endemics from some of the groups.
Examples of trees endemic to the Ulugurus are Pittosporum goetzei, which is found in upper montane forest and
forest patches on the Lukwangule Plateau, and the newly described monospecific
genus Aerisilvaea (Euphorbiaceae) from Kimboza. Examples of Eastern Arc endemic
trees occurring in the Ulugurus are Allanblackia
stuhlmannii, A. ulugurensis, Cephalosphaera usambarensis, and Polyceratocarpus scheffleri.
The Ulugurus are especially rich in endemic herbs (examples being three
to four Linnaeopsis species, and 13 Impatiens species). There are also many
endemic epiphytic Orchidaceae due to the high rainfall and frequent mist cover
(examples being one Bulbyphyllum,
three Polystachya, five Stolzia, one Diaphananthe and one Margelliantha
species).
Of ferns, the Uluguru Mountains hold 223 out of at
least 321 forest species known for the whole Eastern Arc but only three species
are endemic. Mosses and
liverworts comprise
no less than 490 species, of which 10 are endemic, including
the endemic genus Pseudotimmiella.
Many subendemic
plant
species are shared only with the Usambara, Udzungwa or Nguru Mountains.
Conclusion of
literature study. The available information on water catchment, biodiversity
and soil erosion shows
that the relatively small areas of forest in the Ulugurus are of extreme
importance and should be the targets of intense national and international efforts
to ensure their conservation over a prolonged number of years. The
area provides an obvious opportunity for foreign donors to initiate carefully
designed activities. High water catchment values (for Dar es Salaam, Morogoro
and local villages) and biodiversity values can be protected and the living
standard of the local villagers be raised by improving agricultural practices
and providing fuelwood plantations. However, pragmatically, the limited funds
currently available for conservation in the area need to be effectively
targeted into those parts of the Uluguru forests where they are likely to have
the most effect.
The following can hopefully clarify this a little.
1.4. Fieldwork
activities of The Uluguru Biodiversity Survey 1993.
Localities visited (see also Section
4.2. Description of main localities):
Main
localities:
1. Kimhandu, south-eastern part of the Uluguru
South F.R. (Figure 1.4). 29 days. Six field stations.
2. Lanzi, eastern part of the Uluguru South F.R.
(Figure 1.4). 19
days. Three field stations.
3. Tegetero, eastern slopes of the Uluguru North
F.R. (Figure 1.5). 17 days. Three field stations.
Brief
visits:
4. Kimboza F.R., lowland forest in the foothills
(Figure 1.3). One
and a half days. JF/JK.
5. Tchenzema, western slopes of the Uluguru
South F.R. (Figure 1.4). One and a half days. JF/JK.
6. Bunduki, west of the Bunduki Gap
(Figure 1.4). Some
hours. JF/EE.
7. Morningside, northwestern slopes of the
Uluguru North F.R. (Figure 1.5). One hour. JF.
8. Kigurunyembe, submontane strip, northern
slopes of the Uluguru North F.R. (Figure 1.5). One and a half days. JF/JK.
Ornithology. At
localities 1-3 semi-standardized
surveys were applied at all stations along the altitudinal
gradients (each
station: mistnetting
for two full days, 10
minutes assessments of 15-25 one-hectare plots, two tape recordings at dawn;
combined with general field observations). At localities 4-8
activities consist of general
field observations, at some stations combined with
mistnetting or plot assessments.
Botany. At localities 1-3 one 25x25 m plot was assessed
at each of 11 of the 12 mistnetting stations. Data are of the species
composition and vegetation structure of the woody vegetation.
Ethnobotany.
At localities 1-3 knowledgeable elders gave information on local
people’s uses of the various plant species (during work on the botanical
plots
and walks in the forest).
Millipedes.
At locality 1 specimens were collected
along the altitudinal gradient. A few specimens were collected also at
localities 2 and 3.
Mammals. At
localities 1-3 local
villagers were interviewed briefly to assess the condition
of the mammalian fauna. Our own observations from all localities
are listed.
Land
uses. Non-standardised observations were made of
land uses during the survey.
Training. The training component (training in fieldwork techniques and working
with tropical biodiversity projects) focused on Danish biology students and
ornithologists, and on Tanzanian foresters from the Tanzania
Forestry Research Institute (TAFORI) and Morogoro Regional Forest Office. One
ornithologist representing the Norwegian Ornithological Society/BirdLife
Norway participated.
1.5.
Principal findings of the fieldwork.
Birds.
88 of 96 species of
forest birds known to occur in the Ulugurus were recorded on The
Uluguru Biodiversity Survey 1993. One further forest species was new to the Ulugurus
(the aerial feeding Scarce Swift Schoutedenapus
myioptilus, classified as a forest species in this report). A
detailed description of the general bird community is given, based primarily on
standardised methods. Records of species of special conservation importance:
Threatened bird species: The endemic Uluguru Bush Shrike Malaconotus alius was found only above Tegetero (four territories in submontane and lower montane forest). The total population size
is unlikely to exceed one
thousand individuals. Mrs Moreau's Warbler Scepomycter
winifredae is widely distributed but not abundant, in herbaceous meadows
inside forest, including man-disturbed habitat (a minimum of 33 territories
were identified; principal distribution in the montane zone). White-winged Apalis Apalis chariessa was seen near Tegetero
only (two observations in mixed species parties of submontane
forest).
Banded Green Sunbird Anthreptes
rubritorques and Tanzanian Mountain Weaver Ploceus nicolli (both species recorded in the Ulugurus previously)
were not found, probably because the time for general field observations was
limited.
Near-threatened bird species: The endemic Loveridge’s Sunbird Nectarinia loveridgei is extremely abundant in all locations (271 mistnetted,
corresponding 28 % of the total number of birds mistnetted during the survey).
Southern Banded Snake Eagle Circaetus
fasciolatus and Uluguru Violet-backed Sunbird Anthreptes neglectus were recorded only in the lowland forest
Kimboza.
The six other forest bird species of
restricted range (total
breeding range less than 50,000 km²): These species all have significant populations in the
Ulugurus, almost exclusively in
the Uluguru South and North F.R.s.
Species of special conservation importance where
their absence is remarkable: The
Threatened species Swynnerton's Robin Swynnertonia
swynnertoni and Dappled Mountain Robin Arcanator
orostruthus (occurring in the Udzungwas and the Usambaras) were not found,
which supports the possibility that these species have truly relictual
distributions, and are absent from the Ulugurus.
Botany. A list is presented for the Kimhandu and
Lanzi areas of the
47 woody species
that have been identified to species at present. Diagrams are
presented for each station of the four dominant species in terms of basal area
and number of stems. A
very high proportion (13 species = 28 %) of the identified species are Eastern
Arc endemics with two of the species also being endemic to the Ulugurus.
Camphor Ocotea usambarensis was found
on four of eight plots assessed at Kimhandu and Lanzi, with up to four
individuals per plot.
Ethnobotany. Local knowledge is high on specific uses of forest plants. 113 species of trees and
shrubs recorded during the survey were reported to be used by the local
villagers. Examples of uses are for fuelwood, building materials (e.g. poles,
rafters, wall plates, bed legs, shade), medicine (malaria, stomach ache, teeth,
chest pains, convulsions), household items (mortars, pestles, barrels, tool
handles, edible fruits, cooking oil, gums, bee hives, withies, ropes) and
ornaments.
Mammals.
Tree Hyrax, duikers and
many other mammal
species are
severely overhunted, even in forest tracts which otherwise seemed undisturbed.
This is stressed by the facts that only a single duiker individual
was
seen during our two and a half months of fieldwork
and that we found remarkably few mammal tracks in the forest. One of the
species that has been severely reduced in numbers is Abbott’s Duiker which is
an Eastern Arc endemic and on the IUCN Red List of threatened animal species.
Millipedes.
14 taxa of millipedes were
collected during the survey. Three of the taxa probably represent species new
to science. At
least five of the taxa collected are endemic to the Ulugurus.
Land
uses. It is clear that the
Uluguru forests are very threatened from a growing population:
·
Fuelwood resources outside the Forest Reserves
have been extremely seriously depleted in many areas. In some areas almost
no trees
are left in the cultivated areas outside the forest
(the original woody vegetation probably being comprised of dense woodland). On the
lower slopes and in the foothills where woodlands still exist and are the major
firewood source, these have been severely degraded from firewood collection and
burning. There
are few rural woodlots or other means of providing fuel and building wood to
the local population, as an alternative to taking it from the Forest Reserves. Unless large-scale
tree planting is initiated, collection of firewood and
building poles will seriously degrade the lower parts of the mountain forests.
Especially at Tchenzema the degradation is serious already, with varying
degrees of degradation in other parts of the mountains. We do not know the
attitudes of the local people towards tree planting initiatives.
·
In some
of the areas visited (e.g. Tegetero and Tchenzema) the boundary is demarcated
with exotic tree species (Eucalyptus,
Grevillea) but in many parts (including
Kimhandu and Lanzi) the boundary is insufficiently demarcated (demarcations
consist of overgrown ditches and cairns).
·
In all
areas the border between forest and surrounding agricultural areas is very
sharp, and the
forest is being degraded in many places along the lower edge of the Forest
Reserves by clearing for new farmland. See photos in photograph
section.
·
Agricultural
practices are considered
poor.
Maize is often planted on very
steep slopes (up to and beyond 50°) without any kind of efforts to avoid soil
erosion.
·
Fires
are extremely common and widespread in the Ulugurus, at least in the dry season
when we entered the area. We fear that fires have a degrading effect on
the woodlands in the lowland areas, on plantations and on
the
forest edge. They mean that areas once cleared of trees
regenerate very slowly.
·
Half
of the small Bunduki Forest Reserve (mainly exotic trees like Eucalyptus) has recently been
clearfelled. Transport of timber from pitsawing was observed in one locality (Tegetero)
despite
a ban of all pitsawing dating from May 1993. At another locality
(Kinole) ongoing pitsawing was observed in October 1993 by P. Honess (P. Honess
in litt.).
·
An
irregular water supply in some potential agricultural areas may be caused by deforestation (local people, pers.
comm. to JF).
·
Local differences in
degradation of remaining forests are associated with local market differences
and economies; such correlations are also of relevance for the planning of
management strategies for the area. Although nearly all land up to 1500 m on
the eastern slopes of the Uluguru South F.R. (especially in the
Kimhandu area) has
been cleared (with agricultural activities extending right up to
the border of the forest), the remaining (montane) forests in this
area appear virtually untouched (except for hunting and some
encroachment in the lower part), with impressive stands of huge camphor
trees, possibly because villages here
are
remote from external markets, and lack technical possibilities for commercially
exploiting the montane forests. On the contrary, there is a
strong pressure towards the forest in the western part of the Ulugurus. E.g. in
the Tchenzema, area the forest is strongly degraded even inside the forest
reserve and hardly any Camphor are left. In addition, the lowland Kimboza
Forest is seriously degraded, and many of the tall trees that existed earlier
have been removed by logging.
1.6. Importance
of vegetational belts for bird species of special conservation interest.
The geographical distribution in the Ulugurus of
bird species of special conservation interest is shown on Figure 1.6.
Submontane and lower montane belt of the Uluguru
North F.R. (submontane: below 1500 m in the Uluguru North and below 1600 m in
the Uluguru South).
Comparing the Uluguru North and South F.R.s, the most important avifaunal
difference from a conservation aspect is caused by the fact that the northern
section holds considerable areas of submontane evergreen forest whereas this
habitat type today occupies only very small areas in the southern section
(Figure 1.2). In general, the species
occurring mainly in the montane (1500-2100 m in the Uluguru North and 1600-2400
m in the Uluguru South) and upper montane zone (above 2100-2400 m) have good populations
in the Ulugurus, but
species which have their optimum in the submontane zone may have suffered strongly from
the habitat destruction that is supposed to have taken place in
the lower part of the forests. Many narrow-amplitude
species may be unable to maintain populations in the montane (above
1500-1600 m) zone
when their submontane source habitat is lacking.
Examples of such species are some of the most common species in drongo mixed
feeding parties and four of the Threatened species:
·
The Threatened species Apalis chariessa and Anthreptes rubritorques depend entirely
on the submontane and possibly lowest montane zone.
·
The Uluguru endemic Malaconotus alius use the montane
zone to some extent, but the fact that we did not record it in the Uluguru South
F.R. during our survey whereas we recorded four territories in the submontane
and lower montane zone in the Uluguru North (also most earlier records are from
the Uluguru North) clearly indicates that it depends primarily on the
submontane and lowest montane zone. Its occurrence in the montane zone may
depend on the extent of core habitat (submontane and lowest montane forest),
which remains, as a source pool. In other words: If the submontane and lower
montane forest is destroyed, the species may become extinct.
·
The Threatened Eastern Arc
endemic Ploceus nicolli has been
recorded only three times in the Ulugurus, so our knowledge of the
species´occurence here is scanty. At least two of the records are from the
submontane or lower montane belt, and this - in combination with our knowledge
of the species´ altitudinal distribution in the Udzungwas and the Usambaras -
leads us to believe that these belts are very important for the species.
Possibly, they form the source habitat for the population.
The submontane zone also holds two
Near-threatened species (Nectarinia
loveridgei and Anthreptes neglectus)
and all six restricted-range (other than Threatened and Near-threatened)
species. One of these restricted-range species, Sheppardia sharpei, occurs at much higher densities in the
submontane than in the other belts. The Threatened species Scepomycter winifredae occurs here but at much lower densities than
in the montane zone.
Conclusion:
conservation actions for forest birds should be concentrated on the remaining
areas of submontane forest of the Uluguru North F.R., especially
those on the eastern slopes (Tegetero-Bagiro-Kinole-Lupanga area) and the
northwestern slopes (e.g. around Morningside). This area is shown on Figure
1.7.
Montane forest belt (between 1500 and 2100 m in
the Uluguru North F.R. and between 1600 and 2400 m in the Uluguru South F.R.). The montane belt, of which the largest areas of
very good quality are in the Uluguru South F.R. (but with large areas also in
the Uluguru North), is the most important for the protection of the fifth
Threatened species (Scepomycter
winifredae) and the Near-threatened endemic Nectarinia loveridgei.
The montane forest belt is furthermore very
important for the six restricted-range (other than Threatened and
Near-threatened) species occurring in the Ulugurus. Probably the bulk of the
Uluguru populations of four of these are found in the montane belt: Apalis chapini, Orthotomus metopias, Modulatrix stictigula and Poeoptera kenricki.
Upper montane belt (above 2400 m in the Uluguru
South F.R. and above 2100 m in the Uluguru North F.R.). The upper montane belt holds low densities of
the Threatened Scepomycter winifredae,
good densities of the Near-threatened Nectarinia
loveridgei and of the restricted-range species Orthotomus metopias and Modulatrix
stictigula plus low densities of the restricted-range species Poeoptera kenricki.
Foothill forests (<500 m). The foothill forests (at least the
Kimboza/Kibungo/Ruvu area) appear to form the stronghold in the Ulugurus for
the Near-threatened Circaetus fasciolatus
(in the Ulugurus only known from the foothills) and Anthreptes neglectus (good densities), and are furthermore of
importance for the restricted-range species Alethe
fuelleborni which is common there at least seasonally.
The avifauna of the foothill forests shows
similarities to the avifaunas of the threatened lowland forests in the coastal
zone and the lowland parts of certain other Eastern Arc ranges. They hold a
number of forest species, which are not found in the Uluguru North and South
F.R.s. For plants of restricted distribution, Kimboza is very important, the
number of endemics is very high compared to its small size (4 km2).
Kimboza also holds endemics in other animal groups, e.g. one reptile and some
insects (Lovett and Pócs 1993, Lovett and Wasser 1993).
1.7. Recommendations for
further actions.
We believe it is crucial that the Tanzanian politicians recognize the importance
of basing the economic development model for the country on investments for
solving the fundamental environmental problem, such as the loss of natural
water catchment areas. Based on a neoclassical economic growth model, Kaufmann
(1995) has demonstrated that the effect of a reduction in environmental life
support on economic activity increases by a factor of two to three over time,
indicating that it is not possible to substitute capital investments in the
production sector for a degraded environment.
The conclusion of discussions in Tanzania are that the planning of
large-scale donor-supported land management programmes should start up
stepwise, as the Tanzanian managing authorities should first decide on the
national priorities for initiating such programmes. The Eastern Arc
Biodiversity Conference which is to be held in Morogoro, Tanzania, in 1996
(subject: Management of Tanzanian mountain forests and their biological
diversity) will be an opportunity to discuss this issue. Evidently, though, the
Uluguru Mountains would come high up on such a priority list (see documentation
above).
However, critical information on the uses of the forest by the local
people, their attitudes to forest conservation and the pressures they face in
surviving is still scanty for the Uluguru Mountains area which is a serious
barrier to their effective conservation. BirdLife International
(by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds - the counterpart in the UK) in partnership with the Regional
Natural Resources Department in Morogoro are about to start a
field project in the Uluguru Mountains (the Uluguru Slopes
Planning Project) to try
and address some of the issues related to the conservation of these forests.
Biological and social research will be used to develop a plan for the further
conservation efforts required in the Ulugurus.
Suggested
priority areas for protection of biodiversity.
·
This study revealed that
for conservation of Threatened forest birds, actions should clearly be concentrated to the submontane areas (areas
below 1500 m) of the
Uluguru North F.R. (especially the eastern slopes in the
Tegetero-Bagilo-Kinole-Lupanga area and also near Morningside in the
northwest),
see Figure 1.7.
·
The
remaining parts of the Uluguru mountain
forests
(at least the Uluguru North and South F.R.s) are, however, also of
high value for the conservation of forest
birds (including Threatened, Near-threatened and other restricted-range
species) and other organisms. Also the lowland Kimboza/Ruvu
forests and especially one of the outlying hill forests (Mkungwe F.R.) are of
very high biodiversity value.
Suggested
priority areas for protection of water catchment by
provision of fuelwood plantations.
For maintaining the water catchment function the Uluguru North and South F.R.s are clearly
the most important areas, but all remaining forest tracts must be
conserved. Large-scale planting of trees to take
pressure off the
forest as a source for firewood and building poles is regarded as particularly
important.
·
On this survey we observed that the Lanzi area
appears to be
one of the areas which most urgently needs plantations of firewood
since very few trees are left outside the forest. This
area is marked on Figure 1.8.
·
Another
priority area for the provision of firewood
plantations is the priority area mentioned above for conservation of Threatened
forest birds (Figure 1.7 and 1.8) - though the eastern
slopes of the Uluguru North F.R. do not at present lack firewood as seriously
as e.g. the
Lanzi area, it is highly important to secure this valuable area in
every respect.
Suggested
other conservation actions for protection of land below the forest and improved
agricultural yields.
The most important other conservation actions
are (see Section 9.4
for further details):
·
Demarcation
of reserve boundaries with exotic tree species in areas where this has not yet
happened, and regular patrolling, are necessary steps to stop the encroachment
for new agricultural land.
·
Agroforestry techniques
should be used to prevent erosion, to decrease evaporation and to fix nitrogen.
The trees should provide
firewood, building poles, fruits, shade etc. Raising the living standard of the
local people by agroforestry is the way forward for the conservation.
Incentives to improve agricultural yields by better agricultural methods could
be coupled with promises from the villagers to leave the steepest slopes and
areas that are not cultivated unburned.
·
Energy saving cooking
devices may be a way to reduce the amount of firewood used, at least in part of
the area.
·
Measures should be taken
against setting of fires not only near the forest but also in the woodlands at
the base of the mountains (where fires were extremely widespread when we
arrived in October), and on steep, unproductive mountain slopes. Agreements
could be made in villages to identify zones not to be burned, and extra
economic benefits could be allocated according to how well the locals keep
their promises. This will hopefully allow regeneration of woody vegetation on
non-cultivated slopes.
·
The central government
should possibly acquire agricultural land, which is important for land and
forest conservation from the individuals concerned. This includes land with
very steep slopes (45° and above), or on banks of rivers, which could
be siltated or cause soil erosion in case of heavy rain. These areas should be
rehabilitated.
·
Introduction of domestic
meat resources may be a way to reduce the serious hunting pressure.
·
A birth control programme
is necessary to reduce population growth.
·
In the
very poor areas in the south not only incentives to improve agriculture should
be undertaken. Also improved access to markets is necessary. These areas are marked on Figure 1.9.
Incentives could be coupled with promises e.g. to stop burning of slopes that
are anyway not cultivated.
Suggested
priorities regarding further biological survey work.
·
More
work is necessary to describe habitat preference and abundance of the Threatened
bird species in the Uluguru North and
South F.R.s in full detail. Special attention should be paid to extensive
surveys for Malaconotus alius.
·
Research should be
undertaken for selected animal (e.g. frogs) and plant groups to
establish whether the geographical distribution of rare and threatened species
follows that of birds.
·
Of areas so far unknown
ornithologically, the Mkungwe Catchment F.R. with its submontane forest between
800 and 1000 m should be given high priority.
Suggested
priorities regarding further sociological survey work.
·
A detailed appraisal of
the sociological situation of villagers around the forest is required. This is
being implemented as a part of the BirdLife Uluguru Slopes Planning Project in cooperation
with the Regional Natural Resources Department in Morogoro.
·
A
study should be undertaken of why woodlands are being burnt and how this can be
prevented.
1.8. References.
Collar, N.J. and S.N. Stuart 1988. Key forests for threatened birds in Africa. ICBP Monograph No. 3.
Cambridge, U.K.: International Council for Bird Preservation.
Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby and A.J. Stattersfield 1994. Birds to watch 2: The world list of threatened birds. BirdLife
Conservation Series No. 4. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International.
Hall, B.P. and R.E. Moreau 1970. An atlas of speciation in African
passerine birds. London: Trustees of the British
Museum (Natural History).
ICBP 1992. Putting biodiversity on the map: Priority areas for global
conservation. Cambridge, UK: International Council for Bird Preservation.
Cambridge, UK: ICBP (International Council for Bird Preservation). ICBP has now changed its name to BirdLife International.
IUCN 1994. 1994 IUCN Red List of threatened animals. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN Species
Survival Commission.
Kaufmann, R.K. 1995. The economic multiplier of
environmental life support: can capital substitute for a degraded environment? Ecological Economics 12: 67-79.
Lovett, J.C. 1988. Endemism and affinities of
the Tanzanian montane forest flora. Pp. 591-598 in Goldblatt, P. and P.P. Lowry (eds.). Proceedings of the eleventh plenary meeting in the Association for the
Taxonomic Study of Tropical Africa. Monographs in Systematic Botany from
Missouri Botanical Gardens 25.
Lovett, J.C. and T. Pócs 1993. Assessment of the condition of the Catchment Forest Reserves, a
botanical appraisal. Report prepared for the Catchment Forestry Project
(under the Forestry and Beekeeping Division of the Ministry of Tourism, Natural
Resources and Environment, Tanzania).
Lovett, J.C. and S.K. Wasser 1993 (eds.). Biogeography & ecology of the rainforests of eastern Africa.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Lyamuya, V.E., L.G. Noah, M.
Kilasara, E.J. Kirenga and N.D. Burgess 1994. Socio-economic and land use factors affecting the
degradation of the Uluguru Mountains catchment in Morogoro Region, Tanzania. Unpublished report, Regional
Natural Resources Office of Morogoro Region, Tanzania, and The Royal Society
for the Protection of Birds, Sandy, UK.
Scharff, N., M. Stolze and F.P. Jensen 1982. The Uluguru Mts., Tanzania. Report of a study-tour 1981. Unpublished
report, Zoological Museum of Copenhagen.
Temple, P.H. 1973. Soil
and water conservation policies in the Uluguru Mountains, Tanzania. Pp. 110-124
in Rapp, A., L. Berry and P. Temple
(eds.) 1973. Studies of soil erosion and
sedimentation in Tanzania. BRALUP
Research Monograph Number 1, 1973. Dar es Salaam: Bureau of Resource
Assessment and Land Use Planning, University of Dar es Salaam.
White-winged Apalis Apalis chariessa. One of the Threatened bird species
known from the Uluguru Mountains, where it is probably restricted to the
submontane and lower montane forest belts of the Uluguru North Catchment Forest
Reserve. Drawing: Jon Fjeldså.
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