SECTION 9. CONSERVATION OF THE ULUGURU MOUNTAIN
FORESTS.
By Jens Otto Svendsen, Marcel C. Rahner, Jon Fjeldså
and Neil D. Burgess.
9.1. Abstract.
In this section the values
of the Uluguru forests and the threats to them are assessed briefly. The
present conservation status of the forests on the Uluguru Mountains is also
reviewed. The results of the current investigation on biodiversity allied with
those of recent land use studies (Lyamuya et
al. 1994) and our own observations of land use are used to draw up some
conservation recommendations for the area.
The main focus in this
report is on biodiversity but protection of biological diversity also means
maintenance of "ecosystem services", which are of vital importance to
the human populations.
9.2. Values.
9.2.1.
"Ecosystem services" offered to the human population by the forests
in the Ulugurus.
9.2.1.a. Water catchment.
The Uluguru forests are an
effective and exceedingly important catchment area, providing a stable water
supply for many important rivers and streams and maintaining a humid climate of
benefit to agriculture. Part of the explanation is:
·
The forests are on a high range of mountains
not far inland from the sea. Moisture-laden water from the
Indian Ocean rises up the mountains where the
rain
falls.
·
There is growing evidence that large forest tracts in
the tropics produce part of their own rainfall (Jackson 1989). Forested areas,
once established, can maintain a stable local climate that makes them
self-sustaining (Kerfoot 1968, Pócs 1974). Montane forests are regularly covered in
persistent wind-driven fog and clouds and are capable of "combing"
out moisture of the atmosphere (Mäckel and Walter 1983, Stadtmüller 1987,
Bruijnzeel 1990) by condensation on leaf surfaces or dense
epiphytic bryophyte cover and occult precipitation (Kerfoot 1968,
Pócs 1976a). In
some cases the rain pours down inside the forest, while adjacent unforested
landscapes receive little rain. In the highest zone, even tiny patches of
shrubbery may "comb" large amounts of dew from the atmosphere.
·
The water flows from the Uluguru Mountains throughout
the year. This is not only because of the high rainfall and mist-precipitation
in these mountains in relation to the surrounding lowlands, but also because
the vegetation cover and the forest ground act as a
"sponge", storing and retaining precipitation,
releasing the water only gradually (Hamilton 1987, Smiet 1987). Water is stored in e.g.
bryophytes
and lichens growing on the trees and bushes. Pócs (1976a, 1980) demonstrated that
the epiphytic cover of elfin forest in the Ulugurus (14,000
kg of epiphytes per ha) could absorb nearly 50,000 litres of water per
hectare during one rain storm. The epiphytic cover of submontane
forest (2130 kg/ha) could absorb 15,000 litres/ha. In certain areas the
high-altitude bogs serve equivalent functions. Secondary forests without the
cover of mosses and other smaller plants have lost much of the
ability to store water in the vegetation. For an efficient storage of water also
fine
mineral soil material and especially organic matter, both characteristic of
forest, are essential. The soil in the forest is protected from
evaporation: Anyone who has visited the mountain forests of the Ulugurus will
have noticed the big difference in microclimate between the forest and the
surroundings. Within even 15 m it is possible to walk from an unpleasantly hot
agricultural area with absolutely dry ground into a very wet, cool and shady
forest environment. Pócs (1974) showed that temperatures within a forest on
Bondwa Peak in the Ulugurus differ markedly from those outside at the hottest
time of the day. The soil surface temperature in submontane forest at 1430 m
was 30°C less than in a maize field at
the same altitude, and upper montane forest at 2020 m was 20°C cooler than open summit at 2125
m. Pócs (1974) showed that deforestation of submontane forest with subsequent
cultivation would cause an increase in evaporation by four times. In this
respect it should be mentioned that the vegetation of course evapotranspirates
considerable amounts of water.
Water catchment capacity and humidity of climate. Some aspects for local
farmers:
·
The livelihood in all villages
on the Uluguru
slopes is totally dependent on clean water coming from the forests.
·
The forest has a triggering effect on rainfall and mists. A hot and dry
climate does not have this effect.
·
In the principal agricultural zones on the west slopes (growing e.g. vegetables and
fruit for Morogoro and Dar es Salaam), well‑developed systems of ditches
divert water from the streams to the intervening ridges.
·
Water reaches the lowlands of the Ulugurus along
numerous streams and underground seepage, as evidenced by the large number of
wells at the base of the mountains, especially in the limestone karst areas
such as the Kimboza forest. The orchard areas in the eastern foothills are well
watered because of the proximity to the mountain. Much of this lowland
zone is important for agricultural activity and much of the produce is exported
from here to the markets of Morogoro and Dar es Salaam.
·
The large sisal estates north of the mountains depend
on water from the Ngerengere River.
·
An irregular water supply in some potential
agricultural areas may be caused by deforestation (local people, pers. comm. to
JF).
Water catchment area for large cities outside the
Ulugurus. The Uluguru Mountains (especially the forested
parts) are the
main catchment for three important rivers (Figure 1.3):
·
The first is the
Ruvu river, which is the major water source for Tanzania’s most populous city:
Dar es Salaam[1] (c. 2 million
citizens and most of the major industry of the country; uses of water: industrial and domestic) (Temple 1973, K. Murira in litt. 1995). Ruvu collects water mainly from the eastern parts
and is joined further east by the Mgeta and Ngerengere Rivers which collect
water in the southwestern and northwestern parts. There are upper and lower
Ruvu intakes of water for DSM (K. Murira in litt. 1995).
·
Morogoro and Ngerengere Rivers which are the main water
source for the populous regional headquarter Morogoro[2] (Morogoro is situated six km from the northernmost
point of the Uluguru North F.R.[3]) (Temple 1973, Lovett and Pócs
1993, K. Murira in litt. 1995). Ngerengere is furthermore the major
water source for many sisal estates in Morogoro District according to Temple
(1973).
By 1963, apparently following
increased devegetation of the catchment of Morogoro River, flood damage, bank
erosion and silting had become serious problems even within the township of
Morogoro (Little 1963, as cited in Temple 1973). Large differences between wet
season high flows and dry season low flows were said to be increasingly
apparent while severe short duration flash floods of high sediment content were
causing considerable damage (op cit.).
Apparently, the Ngerengere River dried out completely in the dry season with
increasing frequency, causing many problems for the sisal farmers (op. cit.). We have not succeeded in
finding out whether these rivers are still very low in water content in the dry
season. However, we were told by local people that siltation of the streams
supplying Morogoro is a problem (local people pers. comm. to N. Burgess, and
for Morogoro River also K. Murira in
litt. 1995).
There are two
alternatives for securing a continued water supply for Dar es Salaam:
Maintenance of montane forest in the Uluguru Mountains, or the more technical
solution, damming the Ruvu River. However, the latter solution may have severe
unforeseen effects on the hydrological balance in the lowlands.
Furthermore, the
general land degradation leads to strong siltation of the waterways and a big
dam would probably rapidly be filled with sediment (as is the case with the Mindu
Dam
near Morogoro City due to deforestation in its catchment area;
information about Mindu: local people pers. comm. to JF and K. Murira in litt. 1995). Therefore, the only
realistic long-term solution will be protection of the forest cover of the
Uluguru Mountains, combined with increased vegetation cover
outside the forest, especially to decrease soil erosion and immediate water
runoff during heavy rains. Though this vegetation cover in the agricultural
areas will use water for evapotranspiration, it may give an advantage in
agricultural yields by decreasing evaporation from the ground and
evapotranspiration from the crops. It may also have a triggering effect on
rainfall. The value of the catchment function of the forests of the Uluguru
Mountains has not been estimated in monetary terms. However, as most of the
economic activity of Dar es Salaam depends on the waters from this forest, the
value must be billions of Dollars over a 10-year period. This will all be
jeopardised if the forest cover is lost from the mountains.
9.2.1.b. Regulation of runoff and erosion control.
By storing and detaining
precipitation and runoff, the forests reduce floodpeaks that otherwise cause soil erosion problems downstream, all
the way to the lowlands with landslides and massive loss of soil
suitable for agriculture as a result (for a description of these problems, see Section 9.3.4). Patches of bushy
vegetation or trees on ridges, steep slopes and in ravines will
support an undergrowth that protects the soil against erosion.
9.2.1.c. Other
values to the human population.
The Uluguru mountains and
their forests have many other values in addition to those described here. These
include:
·
Plant species which could be of high economical value to the country.
E.g., the wild coffee species occurring could be of value for the Tanzanian
coffee industry. Other plants could be of high value for medicine for the human
population in Africa and other parts of the world (e.g. against cancer, AIDS
etc.). At present locals collect medicine plants in the forest. This activity
is formally illegal but probably causes almost no harm since small amounts are
needed. Furthermore, it is useful that the knowledge among the locals of the
medicinal uses of the plants is maintained.
·
Not to be forgotten are the aesthetic values of these large mountains and
their forests.
·
The source of timber could perhaps
be exploited in a sustainable way that would be of benefit to the local village
and the country. There
are some impressive stands of the timber species Ocotea usambarensis in the remote areas of the Uluguru South F.R.
and also other reserves contain good densities of valuable timbers. At
present pitsawing is, however, forbidden (see Section
9.3.6) and it is clear that such exploitation must take place in a very
controlled way to avoid overexploitation and to ensure that benefit reaches the
right people.
At present a
large
number of materials are obtained directly from the forest by the local people.
Of particular interest are their collection of wood for household
items, building
materials and firewood, and the hunting of animal species for meat.
Much of this collection of forest products is illegal, and - unless
supplementary resources are offered - its rate is now, or will
grow, detrimental
to the forest with a growing population and increased depletion
of resources outside the forest. Information on this issue is presented in Sections 9.3.5 and 9.3.7. Some utilisation
(e.g. for some household and building products) could probably be undertaken at
a sustainable level.
9.2.2.
High biodiversity value.
The Uluguru forests are
a very important site for biodiversity, at the global scale. For a summary of the biodiversity
value of the Ulugurus we refer to Section 1.2 (Executive summary). The
information in Section 1.2 has been compiled from the technical chapters of
this report for birds, mammals, invertebrates and plants. The information on
amphibians and reptiles of special conservation value (not presented in any of
the technical chapters) has been compiled from Howell (1993) and Evans and
Anderson (1992).
The endemic,
subendemic and other red-listed species are not necessarily evenly
distributed within these forests, which has important implications for the
planning of conservation action. Due to time constraints
and lack of information it has not been possible to standardise the data
between organism groups in the assessment of
conservation value given in Section 1.2. Neither has it been possible to fully
assess whether the species mentioned are known from both the mountain and the
foothill forests, except for the birds. Most of
the endemism is probably in the mountain forests, of which almost all is in the
Uluguru North and South F.R.s but also e.g. the lowland Kimboza Forest and the
Mkungwe F.R. on the outlying hills are of very high biodiversity value with
many endemics, at least among plants. The outlying hills are probably
completely unknown biologically except from the plant lists given in Lovett and
Pócs (1993).
9.3. Problems.
Population increase and
the agricultural and resource utilisation activities associated with these
people are the most significant threats to the continued existence of the forests
and the species they contain (Scharff et
al. 1982, Rodgers et al. 1983,
Stuart
and Jensen 1985, Lyamuya et al. 1994,
Mabula et al. 1994,
this survey).
Below we briefly mention
some of the problems to give an overview. For a more detailed description we
refer to e.g. the recent study of socio-economic and land use factors affecting
the degradation of the Uluguru Mountains catchment presented in Lyamuya et al. (1994) and to the study of
Kimboza Forest by Rodgers et al.
(1983). The problems of soil erosion are well described in Rapp et al. (1973). The report by Lyamuya et al. contains a bibliography of
studies of farming systems, land usage, population growth, forest reserves,
climate etc. carried out in the Ulugurus. One of these studies is Temple's
(1973) case study of official conservation policies and their impact on the
Ulugurus.
As an introduction to the
description of problems, we list some notes on the former extent of the forest.
Very little written documentation exists. The following should be seen as an
attempt to give some impression of the knowledge, more than a covering
description (in the hope that this does not give a biased picture). It is based
on what we have come over in easily accessible literature. We refer to the
individual references regarding the context in which the statements were given,
and we will not draw any firm conclusions in this report. It is clear that a
major devegetation has taken place because of agricultural activities and
probably enforced by burning, but the areas of dense woodland, dry deciduous
forest and dense evergreen rain forest that have disappeared cannot be
estimated yet.
Encroachment of forest for farmland at present. Throughout the Ulugurus forest,
borders are very sharp, with agriculture extending right up to the tall trees
at the forest edge, although some small clearings or areas with second-growth
exist just inside the forest border. Encroachment into the forest presently
takes place at a slow rate on the lower edges in many parts of the mountains
(Pócs 1974, Lyamuya et al. 1994, this
survey). At Lanzi
we found an area of approximately one hectare,
on the lower edge, that had recently been cleared for forest. The felled
trees and burned ground we found there are illustrated in the
photograph section. However, since no boundary demarcations were found, we are
not sure whether the destruction took place inside or outside the Forest
Reserve.
In a few areas, e.g.
near our Kimhandu-6 (1540 m) camp (Kitandulu area), the forest reserve
boundary is a few hundred meters inside closed forest. The boundary at
Kitandulu was
marked with short ditches and small piles of stones along a local path. The
forest outside the boundary should probably be regarded as public land and
constitutes (at least preliminary) an important buffer zone towards the
surrounding farmland. Inside this public land zone we found many cutmarks
and stumps from felled trees. As far as we could find out there is also forest
outside the boundary in the Tegetero area.
It is our impression that the
lower edge of the montane forest still corresponds quite precisely, with what
is shown on our 1:50,000 topographical maps which were published 1970 and
1982-3. And Temple (1973, p. 113) mentions that “In many areas the present
Forest Reserve boundary follows the original demarcation [from 1907, editors
remark] but in some areas woodland cover [some woodland areas were included in
the reserve, eds. remark] has been pushed back beyond it as near Kienzema
[Kienzema is another spelling for Tchenzema, eds. rem.]”.
Former distribution of forest habitat. Temple (1973, p. 110) wrote,
“large areas of the mountains have been deforested over the last century and a
half in the course of expansion of peasant agriculture”. Stuhlmann (1895, as
cited in Temple 1973) reported on rapid forest clearing.
The only estimate we have been
able to find of the former extent of forest, giving altitudinal estimates[4],
is from Temple (1973, p. 111). Temple wrote: “Under natural conditions and
before the heavy impact of man, the Uluguru mountains were mainly covered by
forest and woodland. Only on the upper levels of the Lukwangule plateau at
altitudes of above 2600 m does forest give way to a grassy scrub climax (Hill
1930). Below this summit level, montane forest extended downslope to varying
elevations in response to rainfall amounts. On the northern Ulugurus, where all
the detailed study areas are located, the natural lower limit of forest varied
over an altitudinal range of 1000 m from 800 m a.s.l. on the wetter eastern
slopes to 1300-1400 m above Morogoro and to 1800 m above Kienzema [syn.
Tchenzema, eds. remark]. On the southern Ulugurus, which are drier, the natural
lower limit of forest varied between 1200 m on the eastern, seaward-facing
slopes and 1800 m on the western slopes (T. Pócs, personal communication). On
steeper slopes and particularly in the west, a part of this forest cover still
remains and is protected as Forest Reserve. Below the forest limits, woodland
of various types covered the remaining slopes; most of this has been cleared
for agriculture”.
For Bondwa Mountain in the
northern part of the Uluguru North Pócs (1974) wrote: “The research area
occupies the western side of the ridge, where, due to the rain shadow effect,
the climate is drier than on the fully forest covered eastern slopes. The
forest belt here, in natural circumstances, does not descend lower than
1200-1300 m altitude, at least 600 m higher than on the other side”.
Pócs (1976b) wrote: “(1). The
eastern slopes exposed to rain-carrying winds, and the lee side of the
mountains show a very asymmetric pattern of vegetational distribution. On the
one hand, the vegetation zones descend deeper on the eastern than on the
western side, on the other hand there are plant communities which dominate the
eastern, and others which better developed on the western, slopes. On the
eastern slopes, there is practically no dry season, therefore, in natural
circumstances the evergreen forests descend to the foothills. On the western
side, the natural boundary of evergreen forest lies much higher and the
submontane forests, which dominate the eastern slopes, are substituted by dry
forest and by deciduous woodland. This is the situation everywhere in the mountains
where the dry season is longer than 1.5 months. Therefore, the remnants of
evergreen forest are good indicators of a climate practically without dry
seasons. (2). There is no climatic evidence of the presence of a natural
treeless vegetation in the mountains. Most probably all savanna-like plant
communities and a great part of the woodland area are derivates of dry
semievergreen or dry deciduous forests, for which the duration of a 2-6 months
long dry season with 800-1300 mm annual rainfall cannot be an excluding factor.
Only where the duration of the dry season is longer than half a year does there
develop a natural wooded Acacia grassland
(savanna), north- and westwards from the Ulugurus. The presence of relic forest
patches (Wingfield 1975, Pócs 1975) in the concerned zones on the western
slopes underlines this fact. The valley grasslands are also not climatic
communities (see Vesey-Fitzgerald 1970) ... (6). A wide range of vegetation
communities, and first of all most types of closed forests or their remnants,
are climatically induced and therefore good indicators of climatic conditions
for Agriculture and Forestry. On the other hand, the human influence on the
Ulugurus is quite important. A series of vegetation types, although not used
directly for agricultural purposes, is secondary derivate of other communities.
These are, among others, the montane grasslands, in some case the miombo (Brachystegia-Isoberlinia) woodland, and
in most cases the common slope woodlands (Pterocarpus-Combretum)
on the northern, western and on the southern slopes”. The conclusion of Pócs´
study was that the climatically induced altitudinal zonations listed in Section
3.3 could be established (illustrations are given in his paper on altitudinal
zonation with diagrams of monthly precipitation and temperatures for various
altitudes/vegetation belts). In addition, in Pócs (1974) illustrations with
precipitation/temperature diagrams are given on altitudinal zonation (Bondwa
Mountain).
Village elders said to the
interviewers from the survey work presented in Lyamuya et al. (1994) that in the past most of the slopes were well covered
with trees. They couldn’t give the time precisely but they pointed out that it
was between the 1920ies and 1930ies. As time went by the population continued
to increase and more forests were cleared to give way to agriculture. Then when
all the good land was finished, steep slopes and other erosion-prone areas e.g.
close to riverbanks were converted to agriculture. During our 1993 survey, JF
were told by people in Morogoro that they remembered that forest extended
further down earlier. In
some areas, e.g. on
steep slopes of the Uluguru South F.R., below the forest, we saw
patches of large
trees in cultivated areas, suggesting a lower earlier position of the forest
border.
Our own estimate for the eastern
slopes (JF) is: The natural altitudinal vegetation pattern on the east slope
would probably be a gradual
transition from wet montane forest to semi-deciduous woodland at the base, with
true lowland forest in well-watered parts of the foothills, especially in the
limestone zone, which has several artesian wells. However, a wet submontane
forest remains only in a few places, mainly in the northeast, and there is no
transition zone, only tall grasslands and fields.
Our own estimate for the west slope of the Uluguru
South and the miombo woodland (JF) is: Above the principal agricultural areas
on the west slope (the Uluguru South) only disturbed montane forest is left.
Originally, the natural west slope vegetation would be a transition from humid
montane forest to miombo woodland on the nutritionally-poor red soil in the
foothill zone, and with seasonally inundated areas (dambos) with "black
cotton soil" in flat valley bottoms. In addition, the wide zone of low
hills to the south has miombo woodland, because of the large distance from the
humid mountains. The climax vegetation of the miombo zone has a semi-closed
canopy and many tall trees of Brachystegia
and Julbernardia. But because of the incessant
burning of virtually all East African woodland habitats, the present vegetation
of Pterocarya, Combretum and Terminalia
can best be characterized as a fire-filtered plagioclimax, in which the biomass
is often reduced by 90% and the canopy area by 60-70% (Skou in litt. 1994). However, forest
signature (on the topographic maps) of the Wigu Hill (c. 800 m) 20 km southwest
of Uluguru South, and on some other hills along the eastern fringe of the Mgeta
river plain may indicate that a fairly natural vegetation remains here. This
area is virtually uninhabited.
9.3.1.
Population growth.
The population on the
Uluguru Mountains has been increasing since the Waluguru people arrived in the
area less than 200 years ago[5]. Population density on the
slopes of the Ulugurus is high (>150 persons/km² in many areas) (Lyamuya et al. 1994). The high population
density is a result of the favourable nature of the mountains for agriculture (relatively low temperatures,
reducing water loss, and lack of a pronounced dry
season, both factors lower the risks of crop failure), others of several
reasons being the relatively lower rates of malaria on the mountain and the 200
year old tradition of the Lugurus of living on the slopes (Lyamuya et al. 1994). The mean annual population
increase is currently 2.8 % per annum, and up to 6.5 % per annum in some places
(Lyamuya et al. 1994). More
agricultural land is required every year to feed the people in the area
because of continued population growth. The deforestation has probably gone on over the past
200 years since the Waluguru people arrived in the area.
An example of an
exception to the general pattern of high population density is the area halfway
between Tchenzema and the villages above Singiza in the southwest. This area appears to
be almost uninhabited today (because of the long distance from roads) (JF pers.
obs. during the 1993 survey and supported by our 1:50.000 maps). It is now
bushy or sparsely wooded, possibly because of regeneration after previous
clearfelling and degradation.
9.3.2.
Bad agricultural practices.
Virtually all the local
villagers are involved in agriculture and it is the only economic activity in
most places. Agriculture is mainly undertaken at the subsistence level and involves a minimal labour
investment where usually nothing is done to protect the soil. However,
there are also many areas with commercial agricultural activities, especially
in easily accessible parts.
As mentioned, the high and predictable
rainfall makes the Uluguru Mountains suitable for agriculture. However,
the soils
of the Uluguru Mountains are particularly poor in Phosphorus, with a quite low
organic matter content, and hence are not very productive
(Lyamuya et al. 1994). In addition to
this the poor agricultural practices (land reused without a
sufficient fallow period due to shortage of land; farming often on very steep
slopes without any measures to protect the soil from the sun and the rain) leads to soil erosion
and infertile soil. Even in good years the yields of maize on the Uluguru
Mountains are extremely low when compared with yields in other regions like
Ruvuma (Lyamuya et al. 1994).
The
low rate of food production is causing significant hardship and poverty to the
local people. Pressure on the land outside the forest reserves is increasing,
as is the (small scale) pressure to utilise land within the forest reserves for
agriculture - farmers keep on looking for additional land, as obtaining more
agricultural land is seen by most people as the only solution to their present
problems (Lyamuya et al. 1994, Mabula
et al. 1994).
Some major differences
in the agricultural use of the Ulugurus (observations from our survey, mainly
by JF):
·
On the west slope there are good road connections to
Morogoro. The intensive agriculture (nearly 100 % of the land at 1200-1500 m)
supplies the markets in Morogoro and Dar es Salaam with vegetables, notably
cabbage, carrots and cassava, and many bananas are also grown. Close to
Morogoro the agriculture is very intensive. In the areas from Mgeta and Bunduki
to Tchenzema there are well‑developed fruit industries (Malus and Prunus) operating at the commercial level. Many vegetables are
grown. During recent years, the Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) in
Morogoro, and foreign donors, have given strong support in this area to various
agricultural improvements. A simple form of terracing (lazybeds, where the
topsoil is turned in horizontal strips) is practiced all over this area.
However, the labour investment is not sufficient to prevent erosion of the
topsoil. The terraces are smoothed out towards the end of the rainy season, and
on the steeper slopes only sand is left. Fire is used in a controlled way, e.g.
to burn a weedy field before a new production season. There are numerous small
plantations of wattle, eucalyptus and some cypresses and Grevilleas, but not in any way enough to cover the needs for wood,
or for soil protection.
·
On the eastern slopes of the Uluguru North there are subsistence agricultural areas, but
also commercial operations growing bananas and other fruits and vegetables such
as cabbages for export to the markets of Dar es Salaam and Morogoro.
·
Being well watered, much of the eastern foothill zone
is a mosaic of small fields and fruiting trees, such as avocados, bananas,
cashew nuts, oranges, jackfruit, etc., and with many palms and high densities
of kapok trees. Much of the produce is exported to the markets of Dar es
Salaam.
·
In comparison there are areas in the more remote parts
of the Uluguru South forested area which operate from a very low economic base,
with purely subsistence agriculture with very low labour investment and few commercial
activities (but with local vegetable markets). The small villages in
our Kimhandu study area (e.g.
Lumba
Juu, Nyamigadu, Wembela, and Ukwama) are very far from
external markets, the closest being in Dakawa and Kasanga. The road
connections to the area terminates in Singiza, which is connected by more than 15
km of poorly maintained dirt road with Dakawa (Dakawa is on the road which
follows the edge of the Mvuha and Mgeta plains), and in Kolero, to where there
is a reasonably good road. Agricultural products fetch absolute minimum
prices when marketed in Dakawa, simply because it is known that nobody will
carry unsold products all the way back up the hill. The main crops in
the area are
beans, maize and some cassava though also bananas and some few
vegetables are grown for home consumption.
·
A characteristic element of the lowlands to the north
are the large areas of sisal estates.
9.3.3.
Destruction from fires.
Fire is used to prepare
land for agricultural uses (preparing land for planting), for vermin control
and for scaring of wild animals (Lyamuya et
al. 1994). Also to get fresh green grass emerging from the ash
after the first rain (for animals) and to facilitate walking outside the
forest. Possibly some fires are lit without any special reason.
Fires
were extremely
frequent in the foothill woodlands and in the southeastern
part when we visited the Ulugurus on this survey and are
frequently used in other areas near the forests. They probably have a seriously
degrading effect on the foothill woodlands. This threatened habitat type also
suffers from intense fuelwood collection. Fires regularly get out of control, damaging
the forest borders and destroying the vegetation outside the
forest. Slopes cleared of forest or dense woodland cover, or areas, which have
become unsuited for agriculture, regenerate very slowly. Fires also cause
damage to tree
plantations (fires often destroy any trees which have been planted the previous
season according to Lyamuya et al.
1994). The consequence is a strong degradation and increased evaporation.
9.3.4. Erosion and landslides.
Much
of the cultivation is taking place on very steep slopes (up to and beyond 50
degrees) without any precautions taken to prevent
erosion. Furthermore, uncontrolled burning and collecting of
firewood destroy many of the patches of bushy vegetation or trees (with undergrowth) that
could prevent the soil from erosion on ridges, steep slopes and in ravines.
Therefore, in many
cultivated areas erosion is widespread and landslides and mudflows are regular,
causing a high loss of soil. Intensive rainstorms can release severe landslides
in non-forested areas,
which destroy agricultural fields, roads and occasionally houses. The erosion
risk is highest on steep parts of the terrain. It is also especially severe in
areas with sharp fluctuations between a dry and a rainy season, as is the case
on the western slope of the Ulugurus. Landslides in the Mgeta
area have
been discussed in detail by Temple and Rapp (1973) and by
Lundgren (1978). In one
case more than 1000 landslides were recorded within three hours after heavy
rainstorms, of which 47% were observed to originate in cultivated fields, 46%
in grassland and less than 1% in areas covered with forest (Temple and
Rapp 1973).
Attempts by the British
government to introduce soil conservation practices to the Uluguru Mountains
during the colonial period, especially in the 1950ies (the ULUS project), largely failed. Young
and Fosbrooke (1960) and Temple (1973) give the historical background to these
attempts and discuss why they failed. Information on the historical development
of conservation efforts to control erosion and forest degradation in the
Ulugurus is summarized in Lyamuya et al.
(1994) who also list some of the factors contributing to the problem. Further
information on the soil erosion in the Ulugurus can be found in Rapp et al. (1973b).
9.3.5.
Extraction of firewood, building poles and other forest products by local
villagers.
All
people living close to the forest boundary get forest products from the forest
reserves for their daily requirement (Rodgers et al. 1983, Lyamuya et al. 1994 and Mabula et al. 1994). Collection of firewood and
wood for building, house holding equipment, tools, medicine etc. is illegal
although tolerated by most foresters as they realise that the people have few
alternatives (Lyamuya et al. 1994).
Rodgers et al. (1983) mentioned for
Kimboza that as natural woody vegetation becomes more scarce in cultivated
areas, the forest will become of increasing importance. This is valid for all
parts of the Ulugurus where woodlands are getting thinner and thinner all the
time. On our survey we noted that e.g. in the Lanzi area almost
no trees are left outside the forest. Rough estimates from eastern Africa suggest
that more than 90 % of all wood harvesting is for fuelwood (Rodgers 1993); this
is probably the same for the Uluguru mountains. In many areas near the catchment forest reserves
much of this firewood probably comes from the Forest Reserve
(Lyamuya 1994).
During our 1993 survey
CKM, SIM and BSS carried out a preliminary enquiry to record various uses of
the trees and shrubs collected for identification during the fieldwork in the
Kimhandu, Lanzi and Tegetero areas. In Mabula et al. (1994) they present a list of 113
species belonging to 49 families, with scientific names, uses and Kiluguru
names. The uses of some trees and shrubs species varied from one person to
another and from one locality to another (Mabula et al. 1994) and it should be born in mind that the enquiry, due to lack of time, was carried out without
using anthropological techniques developed for collection of ethnobotanical
information. However, the conclusion from the enquiry is very clear: a wide
range of species of trees and shrubs are used for many purposes, some of them
for very specific purposes. Uses of the 113 species:
Fuelwood: 91 species
(80.5 %).
Poles: 23 species (20.4
%).
Poles for making
lavatory: 1 species (0.8 %).
Timber: 5 species (4.4
%).
Wall plates: 2 species
(1.8 %).
Rafter: 5 species (4.4
%).
Bed legs: 1 species (0.9
%).
Tool handles: 3 species
(2.7 %).
Tools: 1 species (0.9
%).
Mortars: 1 species
(Camphor Ocotea usambarensis) (0.9
%).
Pestles: 2 species (1.8
%).
Barrels: 2 species (1.8
%).
Beehives: 1 species (0.9
%).
Withies: 29 species
(25.7 %).
Ropes: 2 species (1.8
%).
Cleaning walking sticks:
1 species (0.9 %).
Shade: 4 species (3.5
%).
Fodder: 3 species (2.7
%).
Gums: 1 species (0.9 %).
Cooking oil extracted
from seeds: 1 species (0.9 %).
Conservation: 30 species
(26.5 %).
Edible fruits: 6 species
(5.3 %).
Edible nuts: 1 species
(0.9 %).
Edible bark: 1species
(0.9 %).
Medicine for stomach
ache: 6 species (5.3 %).
Medicine for stomach
troubles: 2 species (1.8 %).
Medicine for malaria: 3
species (2.7 %).
Medicine for spirit: 1
species (0.9 %).
Medicine for teeth: 1
species (0.9 %).
Medicine for chest
pains: 1 species (0.9 %).
Medicine for
convulsions: 1 species (0.9 %).
Medicine, unspecified: 1
species (0.9 %).
Latex applied to breast
to increase milk on breast-feeding mother: 1 species (0.9 %).
Fortunate bath: 1
species (0.9 %).
Ornamental: 2 species
(1.8 %).
Calendar: 1 species (0.9
%) (a species flowering after 11 months. So local people use it as a calendar).
Sometimes valuable trees felled
are not fully utilised: For example a big Camphor tree Ocotea usambarensis which might have existed for one hundred years
may be felled just to obtain a piece hardly not more than 2 m length for making a grinding mortar
(Mabula et al. 1994).
Rodgers et al. (1983) lists local names for plants
of Kimboza Forest and also lists forest plant products utilised by local
people in Kimboza F.R. (the latter based on a collection by one elderly
villager in a morning).
Pitsawing of valuable timber
was until recently legal, so long as a licence had been obtained, but a ban on
pit-sawing was made in May 1993 by decree from the Director of Forestry
(Lyamuya et al.1994). This has
hopefully decreased the problem of overexploitation in the area. However, as
recently as
October 1993 considerable logging activity was observed above Kinole village,
with pit-sawyers living on the edge of the closed forest (P. Honess in litt. 1994).
Some areas have been depleted of
valuable timber species, whereas they still occur at good densities in other
areas. The
forest of the Kimhandu area in the south, especially the southwest corner,
appears untouched by man. There are very few trails in this area, and hardly
any indications of cutting away from the trails. There was an impressive
density of large Camphor trees here (though they were
missing in e.g. the lower part of the forest in the Ukwama area). Because
of market problems and lack of technology (there is a very long way to walk to
the gravel road/dirt track connections to Kolero and Singiza), the villagers
and people from outside have been unable to exploit the timber trees
commercially.
In the Lanzi area, including the Lanzi-1 near the
lower edge, large
Camphor trees were seen often. This should be seen in the light
that it is possible to motor all the way to Lanzi and that the forest here is
more disturbed in the lower part than at Kimhandu. Camphor trees were recorded
on four of the eight botanical 25x25 m plots assessed at Kimhandu and Lanzi,
with up to four individuals per plot.
At Tegetero and Morningside the
forest is of fine quality but pitsawing has certainly taken place here. As
mentioned above ongoing pitsawing have been seen at Kinole and we found a
number of old pitsawing places at the edge of the forest above Kinole when we
left the forest.
The forest to the west
of the Lukwangule Plateau (easy access and much human activity below) is strongly disturbed by
cutting of poles and firewood and virtually all large timber trees have been extracted
here and in the Bunduki area. Up to 2300 m the forest is only 10-15 m tall
(with some emergents to 25 m). It can best be characterised as second-growth
thickets and has many glades overgrown with tall herbs, brambles and shrubs. Fairly
undisturbed forest is generally found only above 2350 m in this area and the lowest Ocotea tree was seen at 2250 m.
110 ha of the small
Bunduki F.R. had recently been clearfelled (illegally) when we visited it, and what is left is
mainly plantation of exotic trees.
Rodgers et al. (1983) gave details on species
extracted by pit sawyers from Kimboza Forest in the early 1980ies. Also Lovett
and Pócs (1993) gave information for Kimboza (see our Appendix 3.2).
Pitsawing has been widespread and caused much damage in the Kimboza F.R., as
was also observed on this survey. A good road passes through Kimboza Forest
(see Figure 1.3).
Lovett and Pócs (1993) also
described pitsawing activities in other forest reserves (see our Appendix 3).
Camphor Ocotea usambarensis and other valuable
species are not only cut by pit sawyers,
but also
used by the local people (see Section 9.3.5).
Mammals in the Ulugurus
are threatened not only by habitat destruction but also by killing for food.
Snares, traps, pits, dogs and guns are used for hunting of many different
species of mammals. This intensive hunting supplies the growing
local population with one of their few sources of protein.
The
intense hunting has reduced populations of almost all species, e.g. of Abbot's
Duiker Cephalophus spadix which is
endemic to the Eastern Arc forests and on the 1994 IUCN Red List of globally
threatened species (IUCN 1994). The scarcity of mammals
(apart from monkeys and squirrels) is illustrated by the fact that during our
two
and a half months of fieldwork in the Uluguru North and South F.R.s only a
single duiker (a Blue Duiker) was seen (see Section 6).
Extremely few tracks of mammals were found during our survey, compared to what
we have seen in undisturbed parts of the Udzungwa forests (LAH and JOS).
Elephant Loxodonta africana and Buffalo Syncerus caffer have probably disappeared
completely. In undisturbed
parts of the Udzungwas (West Kilombero Scarp Forest Reserve) these two
species are
fairly common (LAH and JOS, pers. obs.), this is also the case in
the Rubeho Mountains which have an influx of animals from the Mikumi National
Park (JF, pers. obs.).
9.3.8.
Badly maintained boundary demarcations and lack of control.
The boundary of the forest
reserves were well demarcated with exotic tree cordons in some of the areas we
visited on our survey whereas in other areas only old and rather invisible
demarcations existed. In the
Tegetero area the forest reserve boundary is demarcated with exotic trees (Grevillea, Eucalyptus). On the western side of the Uluguru South F.R. the
boundary is well demarcated with Cupressus and Eucalyptus
(Lovett and Pócs 1993, this survey). At Kimhandu and Lanzi the
boundary was only demarcated with overgrown piles of stones (cairns) and short
ditches.
The demarcation with
exotic trees has not prevented intensive cutting and logging inside the forest
reserve above Tchenzema (this survey): People are well aware that it is illegal
to collect wood and other products in the forest but cut what they can. The
forest attendants live far away[6] and do not usually come
to control the area.
9.3.9.
Ruby mining - an additional disturbing factor in the lowland Ruvu Forest.
Ruby mining takes place
in the lowland Ruvu Forest Reserve. This leads to heavy disturbance in this
forest, large parts of which may already be severely degraded (Appendix 3.3.b).
9.4.1.
Present conservation status and conservation efforts.
Temple (1973) and Lyamuya et al. (1994) summarized the
historical development of conservation efforts in the Ulugurus. Efforts to
conserve the forest on the Uluguru Mountains date back to 1909 (Temple 1973),
when the colonial government interrupted the system of shifting cultivation by
establishing a 277-km² forest reserve, which still remains. The Forest Reserves are
now controlled by
the Forest and Beekeeping Division of the Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and
Environment. The purpose of establishing the montane and lowland forest
reserves in the Ulugurus were to conserve the forest to protect the water
catchment function, and to prevent land-slides. Other
reserves have been established later (see Appendix 3).
Lyamuya et al. (1994) listed recent conservation
efforts of the Forestry and Agriculture Departments and of externally
funded conservation projects. At present time the Regional and District
Forestry Divisions are doing the following to try and reduce
land-degradation problems on the Ulugurus:
·
raising seedlings for planting on the Uluguru
Mountains.
·
creating awareness on tree planting and other aspects
of environmental conservation.
·
preventing fires by education, fire campaigns and
patrols.
·
promoting the use of agroforestry on the mountain.
There are currently a
number of externally funded conservation projects operating around the Ulugurus
which are attempting to reduce environmental degradation, increase standard of living
and
assist the protection of the mountain forests for their catchment values. These
are (data from Lyamuya et al. 1994):
a. Sokoine University. A group of university
staff have been working with villagers above the university to try and
incorporate both tree-planting and soil conservation practices into their
farming methods. The project has also taken village farmers to see other areas
in Tanzania with different farming systems, and upon their return these
villagers have convinced others to take up the same farming practices. These
farms are at the trial stage, but if they are successful then they will be used
as demonstrations for other farmers on the Ulugurus. This project is funded
through the Norwegian Development Agency (NORAD).
b. Franco-Tanzanian Uluguru Mountain Horticulture
Project. This project is also based at the Sokoine University
and is working in the Mgeta Division and near Kinole on the eastern side of the
Uluguru North. The project is working with village farmers to try and help
develop a more productive farming system and thus raise their standard of living. The project has
been operating for four years, and now plans to expand its operation over the
next three years. The project is funded through the French Charity, the Inades
Foundation.
c. Morogoro Women-Focused Afforestation Project. This project has been
operating for four to five years, and is set to continue for at least another
three years. The project is working in villages around Morogoro, including some
on the slopes of the Ulugurus. The project is working with interested
individuals to try and incorporate tree growing and other agricultural
improvements into the habits of village farmers. It is working in conjunction
with Forestry Division staff and increasingly with Agricultural Extension
workers and is funded through the Swedish Volunteer Service.
d. Catchment Forestry Project. This project is working
with the Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and Environment to re-plant the
boundary of the Catchment Forest Reserves, gap-planting, and to police the
reserves. The project has also undertaken some trial work with involving
villagers in the conservation of Catchment Forests, although not in the Uluguru
Mountains. The project is jointly funded by the
Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and Environment and NORAD, and aims to continue
working for several further years.
e. Uluguru Slopes Planning Project. This project will be an
extension of the work started for the report by Lyamuya et al. (1994). The project is funded by the European Community
through the British conservation charity the Royal Society for the Protection
of Birds. The project aims to conduct socio-economic survey work on the slopes
of the Ulugurus, and biological and social research inside the Uluguru Forest
Reserves. It is planned to use this information, and other data gathered during
the course of the project work, to develop a plan for the further conservation
efforts required in the Uluguru Mountains.
There are some common
themes in each of these projects (Lyamuya et
al. 1994):
·
They are all tackling the same basic issues of poor
farming methods, soil erosion, poor standards of living, lack of fuelwood and
firewood, and problems of deforestation.
·
Although many of the projects are agricultural and
rural development in nature they are all aware of the forest catchment issue
and what needs to be done to protect the water supply of Dar es Salaam, and the
forests themselves.
·
Most of the projects are operating independently and
are often unaware of the existence of each others and of the work of the
government services in the same area.
·
Collectively there is no overall strategy for the
conservation of the Ulugurus and how each of these projects, and the government
services, might contribute to this process.
9.4.2.
Proposals for conservation actions and future surveys.
The conservation of the
Uluguru forests can only be in conflict with the most short-sighted economic
interests as it has major long-term benefits at local and national levels.
Moreover, important scientific, genetic and aesthetic values can be preserved
for the future if the forests of the Ulugurus are safeguarded.
The value of the
catchment function of the forests of the Uluguru Mountains has not been
calculated in monetary terms. However, as most of the economic activity of Dar es Salaam depends on the waters from this forest
the value must be billions of Dollars over a 10 year period. This is all
jeopardised by the loss of the forest cover from the mountains. We believe that it is
crucial that the Tanzanian politicians recognize the importance of basing the
economic development model for the country on investments for solving the
fundamental environmental problem, such as the loss of natural water catchment
areas. Based on a neoclassical economic growth model, Kaufmann (1995) has
demonstrated that the effect of a reduction in environmental life support on
economic activity increases by a factor of two to three over time, indicating
that it is not possible to substitute capital investments in the production
sector for a degraded environment.
The conclusion of discussions in Tanzania is that the
planning of large-scale donor-supported land management programmes should start
up stepwise, as the Tanzanian managing authorities should first decide on the
national priorities for initiating such programmes. The Eastern Arc
Biodiversity Conference which is to be held in Morogoro, Tanzania, in 1996
(subject: Management of Tanzanian montane forests and their biological
diversity) will be an opportunity to discuss this issue. Evidently, though, the
Uluguru Mountains would come high up on such a priority list.
Taken together the
available information on biodiversity, water catchment and economics shows that
the forests of this mountain block are of extreme importance and should be the targets
of intense national and international efforts to ensure their conservation over
a prolonged number of years. However, pragmatically, the limited funds
currently available for conservation in the area need to be effectively
targeted into those areas where they are likely to have the most effect.
9.4.2.a. Suggested priority areas for conservation.
Suggested priority area for protection of biodiversity
values (see Figure 1.7). All forests of the Uluguru
North and South F.R.s, Kimboza-Ruvu and also Mkungwe F.R.s are of international
conservation priority. However, the results of this survey indicate that one
area of forest is of particular importance and that resources should be
concentrated to this area initially. For protection of Threatened forest birds
actions should clearly be concentrated to the submontane forest of
the Uluguru North F.R., of which most is in the Tegetero-Bagilo-Kinole-Lupanga area
on the eastern slopes, with some also around Morningside on the northwestern slope (Figure
1.7). The reason for pointing
at this area
is:
·
All five Threatened bird species occur here, and four
of them appear to depend on the submontane (below 1500 m) and lower
montane forest
for
their survival, Scepomycter winifredae
being the exception. If the forest in this area disappears, then the endemic bird Malaconotus alius may become extinct
globally, and others of the species of birds found only in a few mountain
forests of Tanzania may disappear as well from the Uluguru Mountains.
Three of the Threatened species (Apalis
chariessa, Anthreptes rubritorques
and Ploceus nicolli) have never been
recorded in the Uluguru South F.R. which largely lack submontane forest, and at
least the first two of them are most likely absent from there.
·
The submontane forest of the Uluguru North F.R. is of
an excellent quality, some of the most beautiful forest in East Africa, being
characterised by tall, thick trees covered with dense epiphytes. It is likely
that also many other of the rare species in other organism groups found in the
Ulugurus are restricted to or highly dependent on this area.
Suggested priority area for conservation of catchment
values. All forested land on the Ulugurus, especially on the mountains,
is of national priority for the conservation of water supplies to the most
industrialised parts of the country. These values to the country far exceed the
values to Tanzania generated by the agricultural use of the land outside the
forest. Highest priorities for management of the forest reserves in the
Uluguru Mountains are clearly the Uluguru North and Uluguru
South
Forest Reserves. The two reserves must be considered together as
priorities because they cover the Uluguru Mountain ridge and slopes which are
the major part of the Ruvu river catchment, and many other smaller rivers of
local importance, including the water supply for Morogoro town.
Suggested priority area for large-scaled tree planting (see Figure 1.8): Large-scale planting of
trees to draw the attention from the forest as a source for firewood and
building poles is regarded as particularly important. On this survey we
observed that the Lanzi area appears to be one of the areas
that most urgently needs plantations of firewood. This area is marked on Figure 1.8. Another priority
area for provision of firewood plantations is the area mentioned above as
priority for
conservation of Threatened forest birds - though the eastern
slopes of the Uluguru North F.R. do not at present lack firewood as seriously
as the Lanzi area, it is important to secure this valuable area in every
respect.
Suggested priority area for increasing living standard
according to observations from this survey (see Figure 1.9): South-eastern part of
the Uluguru South, e.g. the Kimhandu area, where there is low economic
activity. This area is marked on Figure 1.9. Investments
in land use improvements, better access to markets, employments, other economic
activities etc. are things that could help in this area. They could be coupled
with agreements about a full burning stop on steep and unproductive slopes,
where vegetation regeneration is needed.
9.4.2.b. Recommendations for conservation actions.
General conservation actions. Below are listed recommendations given in Lyamuya et al. (1994), supplemented with some
new ideas:
·
We believe that carefully planned agroforestry systems have to be
introduced in the study area with the purpose of increasing self sufficiency in
firewood and other forest products, and of diverting the monotonous low
cost-benefit system of agriculture to more economically viable production
systems. The type of trees to be recommended have to meet at least one of the
following needs: alleviate the soil fertility problem, conserve the soil from
erosion, protect against high evaporation and provide direct financial benefits
to the individual farmers. Training and working with farmers and producing
booklets as described by Lasalle (1993) could be the way forward. In certain
villages in the wet zone (such as Mkuyuni at the Morogoro-Dakawa road) and the
drier zone (Mgeta) of the Ulugurus, selected agroforestry systems have already
been found to be economically efficient when evaluated at 10 % of opportunity
cost of capital (Senkondo 1992, as cited in Lyamuya et al. 1994).
·
As far as land and soil conservation is concerned, a combination of
simple measures, notably those which are effective when applied to an
individual field/plot, have to be identified and demonstrated before
whole-scale propagation is undertaken. Such measures could include carrying out
farm operations along the contour lines of a piece of land that is technically
protected from erosion by vertiver grasslines or equivalent measures.
·
In addition to the firewood resources provided by agroforestry planting,
it will probably be necessary to make firewood plantations to meet the high and
overriding demands. Firewood plantations will take up space and since there is
already a shortage of land for agriculture (see below under Further survey
work) it may be necessary to rent or buy land to avoid resistance from the
local people. Plantations should preferably be with indigenous species though
it may be necessary to use also Pinus or
Eucalyptus for quick provision of
fuelwood (at least Eucalyptus is,
however, known to consume huge amounts of water and nutrients and to leave
toxics on the ground via leaves etc.). Planting should be initiated as soon as
all possible.
·
Distribution of locally made energy saving cooking devices may be a way
to save firewood. This will fit in well to the Luguru community, which is
specialised in pottery. The government has to promote the industry by providing
technical assistance and assisting the distribution of the products at a cheap
price to rural areas. A similar approach has been successfully taken in Kitui
District in Kenya. However, at least in the higher part of the Ulugurus people
need a fire in the evening to keep themselves warm and if they have to light a
new fire away from the cooking device then there may not be much energy saved.
Such problems need to be studied before large-scale distribution is started.
·
We recommend that boundary surveying, marking and clearing plus
demarcation with exotic tree species (Eucalyptus,
Grevillea) take place in those areas where this has not yet happened.
·
Measures should be taken against setting of fires not only near the
forest but also in the woodlands at the base of the mountains (where fires were
extremely widespread when we arrived in October) and on steep, unproductive
mountain slopes. Agreements could be made in villages to identify zones not to
be burned, and extra economic benefits could be allocated according to how well
the locals keep their promises.
·
We believe that the central government should acquire agricultural land,
which is important for land and forest conservation from the individuals
concerned. This includes land with very steep slopes (45° and above) or on riverbanks. These
areas should be rehabilitated. A similar approach was used in Moshi Rural
District, where it worked successfully. Lack of protection of very steep areas
and riverbanks and surroundings leads to strong siltation of streams and strong
erosion during heavy rains.
·
Introduction of animals for meat supply may be a way to decrease the
hunting pressure.
·
Other economic activities that are practised in other highlands in
Tanzania or elsewhere could be identified, and modified to suit the Luguru
environment. A few pilot groups could be selected to serve as demonstrators to
the rest of the community, and these individuals sent to the more successful
parts of the country.
·
Deliberate efforts to reduce the population pressure through a rigorous
education programme to the youth, and a birth-control campaign. Experience can
be drawn e.g. from the heavily and densely populated Moshi Rural, Hai and Rombo
districts in Kilimanjaro.
·
A technical catchment advisory and executive board could be established
and provided with the mandate to manage the Uluguru catchment. The composition
of the group has to be drawn from various relevant disciplines which are
concerned with people, land, environment, law, economics, sociology and any
other relevant discipline.
·
Constant evaluation of progress and formulation of new approaches are
vital parts of land and forest conservation. This can only be achieved through
continuous research cum demonstration activities, which have to be part and
parcel of the conservation program.
·
The villagers’ primary motivation in accepting any
externally assisted changes to their agriculture is almost certainly a desire
to try and augment their income and standard of living. This must always be
considered.
Further management
proposals (from Lovett and Pócs 1993) for the individual forest reserves in the Ulugurus can be found
in Appendix 3. Rapp et al. (1973b) and Lundgren (1978) listed recommendations for and comments on
efforts to prevent erosion of slopes (loss of soil) and siltation/very
fluctuating water levels of important streams. For the important Morogoro River
catchment Rapp et al. (1973a)
recommended the following to reduce the considerable loss of soil and water to
acceptable proportions:
·
Planting of tree belts on critical slope sections to reduce the danger
of landsliding (cf. Temple and Rapp 1973).
·
Extended use of grass barriers, trash bunds and mulching on bare fields
to reduce splash and sheet wash (cf. Temple and Murray-Rust 1973).
·
Manuring of fields to permit longer periods of
cultivation and hence longer periods of grass and bush fallow on a larger
proportion of the cleared slopes.
Further sociological survey work:
·
A detailed appraisal of the sociological situation of
villagers around the forest is required. This is being implemented as a part of
the BirdLife
Uluguru Slopes Planning Project in cooperation with the Regional
Natural Resources Department in Morogoro and other
institutions.
The background is that the social values of the
various parts of the forest to the local people and their perceptions of the
values of forest to them is not known. Furthermore, in some areas
people still link conservation efforts with the conservation initiatives that
failed in the 1940ies and 1950ies (ULUS project). Detailed sociological data are important for
the finer scale planning of a major conservation programme to ensure that
the programme will deliver things that the local people could understand and
which were relevant to them. All actions need to be targeted to fit the local
situation as it is found on the ground, and working with the local villagers as well as the forestry
authorities is absolutely essential.
Some aspects that are worth
mentioning in this respect are:
1.
The conservation actions required in the individual areas depend
on e.g.: How well-off
is the area? How depleted is the area of fuelwood? How important
is the forest? Which kind of agriculture is undertaken? Accessibility of the
area? Which kind of trees would the local villagers prefer? What is the
attitude among the villagers towards agroforestry, stop of burning, fuelwood
plantations etc.?
2.
In nine villages visited during the survey work presented in Lyamuya et al. (1994) 88-100 % of the farmers
interviewed were willing to plant trees (for fuelwood, building materials,
fruit-production and financial grain; this varied much between villages).
However, regarding tree planting Lyamuya et
al. (1994) mentioned severe land tenure problems. Trees are individual
property, virtually unrelated to the land on which they stand. This, together
with the common practice of lending land for cultivation of annual crops has
severely limited the process of adopting afforestation or agroforestry
practices, and will continue to be a problem for any further attempts at tree
planting. Furthermore, the shortage of land may lead to some resistance against
tree planting initiatives, since the overriding need of the villagers (who are
poor) is an adequate supply of food on a short term.
·
A study should be undertaken of why woodlands are
being burnt to such a high extent and how this can be prevented.
Further biological survey work: Birds: The observations from
this survey (in combination with literature studies) have added significantly to
the knowledge of the Uluguru forests, especially the little-known Uluguru South
F.R. In Section 5.7 we listed priorities for future
ornithological work in the Uluguru forests. Other organism groups: The distributional
pattern in the Ulugurus may differ between Threatened bird species and rare species in other
organism groups. An assessment of habitat preferences of rare taxa in other
organism groups should preferably complement the
Threatened birds survey mentioned in Section 5.7.
9.5. References.
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L.A. 1990. Hydrology of moist tropical forests and effects
of conversion: A state of knowledge review. Amsterdam: Free University
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(eds.) 1973. Studies of soil erosion and
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Tanganyika. London: North-western University Press.
End of Part A. Go to: Part B, Contents of Part A, or my Homepage
Left: Black-fronted
Bush-shrike Thelophorus nigrifrons. Right: Uluguru Bush-shrike Malaconotus
alius.
Drawing:
Jon Fjeldså.